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FileMaker is a cross-platform relational database application from Claris International , a subsidiary of Apple Inc.

It integrates a database engine with a graphical user interface GUI and security features, allowing users to modify a database by dragging new elements into layouts, screens, or forms. It is available in desktop , server , iOS and web -delivery configurations. FileMaker Pro , the desktop app, evolved from a DOS application, originally called simply FileMaker , but was then developed primarily for the Apple Macintosh and released in April It was rebranded as FileMaker Pro in Since it has been available for Microsoft Windows and for the classic Mac OS and macOS , and can be used in a cross-platform environment.

FileMaker Server allows centralized hosting of apps which can be used by clients running the desktop or mobile apps. It is also available hosted by Claris, called FileMaker Cloud. Nutshell was distributed by Leading Edge , an electronics marketing company that had recently started selling IBM PC -compatible computers.

With the introduction of the Macintosh, Nashoba combined the basic data engine with a new forms-based graphical user interface GUI.

Leading Edge was not interested in newer versions, preferring to remain a DOS-only vendor, and kept the Nutshell name. Nashoba found another distributor, Forethought Inc. Forethought was purchased by Microsoft , which was then introducing their PowerPoint product that became part of Microsoft Office. Microsoft had introduced its own database application, Microsoft File [ citation needed ] , shortly before FileMaker, but was outsold by FileMaker and therefore Microsoft File was discontinued.

Microsoft negotiated with Nashoba for the right to publish FileMaker, but Nashoba decided to self-publish the next version, FileMaker 4. Shortly thereafter, Apple Computer formed Claris , a wholly owned subsidiary, to market software.

Claris purchased Nashoba to round out its software suite. By then, Leading Edge and Nutshell had faded from the marketplace because of competition from other DOS- and later Windows-based database products.

FileMaker, however, continued to succeed on the Macintosh platform. Claris changed the product’s name to FileMaker II to conform to its naming scheme for other products, such as MacWrite II, but the product changed little from the last Nashoba version.

Several minor versions followed. In , the product was released as FileMaker Pro 1. And in September , Claris released a cross-platform version for both the Mac and Windows ; except for a few platform-specific functions, the program’s features and user interface were the same. Up to this point FileMaker had no real relational capabilities; it was limited to automatically looking up and importing values from other files.

It only had the ability to save a state—a filter and a sort, and a layout for the data. Version 3. By , FileMaker Pro was the only strong-selling product in Claris’s lineup. In , Apple moved development of some of the other Claris products in-house, dropped most of the rest, and changed Claris’s name to FileMaker, Inc.

In , FileMaker International Inc. Version 4. A bundled plug-in, the Web Companion, allowed the database to act as a web server. Other plug-ins added features to the interface and enabled FileMaker to serve as an FTP client, perform external file operations, and send messages to remote FileMaker files over the Internet or an intranet.

Version 7, released in , introduced a new file format file extension. Individual fields could hold up to 4 gigabytes of binary data container fields or 2 gigabytes of 2-byte Unicode text per record up from 64 kilobytes in previous versions.

FileMaker’s relational model was expanded, offering multiple tables per file and a graphical relationship editor that displayed and allowed manipulation of related tables in a manner that resembled the entity-relationship diagram format.

Accompanying these important changes, FileMaker Inc. In FileMaker Inc. These included a tabbed interface, script variables, tooltips , enhanced debugging, custom menus, and the ability to copy and paste entire tables and field definitions, scripts, and script steps within and between files.

Version 8. FileMaker 9, released on July 10, , introduced a quick-start screen, conditional formatting, fluid layout auto-resizing, hyperlinked pointers into databases, and external SQL links. FileMaker 11, released on March 9, , introduced charting, which was further streamlined in FileMaker 12, released April 4, That version also added themes, more database templates so-called starter solutions and simplified creation of iOS databases.

FileMaker Go 11 July 20, and FileMaker Go 12 for iPhone and iPad April 4, allow only the creation, modification, and deletion of records on these handheld devices. Design and schema changes must be made within the full FileMaker Pro application. FileMaker Go 12 offers multitasking, improved media integration, export of data to multiple formats and enhanced container fields. The client and server products were enhanced to support many mobile and web methods of data access.

FileMaker 14 platform released on May 15, This was followed by version 15 in May and version 16 in May ; both including equivalent Pro, Pro Advanced, Server and Go versions. In late , FileMaker began annually publicizing a software roadmap of future features they are working on as well as identifying features they are moving away from or may deprecate in the near future.

FileMaker Inc. A third-party hosting service, fmcloud. These versions offer spellchecking, data entry, sorting and printing options for languages of the respective region.

They also contain localized templates and localized instant web publishing. There are customized templates for Russian, Polish, Czech, Turkish.

Similarly, the Middle Eastern version has only English and French user interfaces, but with its option to change the text direction to right-to-left , it does support Arabic and Hebrew data entry. FileMaker Pro and FileMaker Pro Advanced include scripting capabilities and a variety of built-in functions for automation of common tasks and complex calculations. Numerous steps are available for navigation, conditional execution of script steps, editing records, and other utilities.

FileMaker Pro Advanced provides a script debugger which allows the developer to set break points, monitor data values and step through script lines. FileMaker 13 introduced a useful script that more deeply queries container field document metadata.

It is a cross-platform relational database application. Versions from FileMaker Pro 5. FileMaker 12 introduced a new function, ExecuteSQL, which allows the user to perform an SQL query against the FileMaker database to retrieve data, but does not allow data modification or deletion, or schema changes.

One major flaw with ODBC support is the lack of one-to-one field-type mapping from FileMaker to external industry-standard databases.

Further issues are caused by the fact that FileMaker is not “strict” in its data types. A FileMaker field can be marked as “numeric” and will return this mapping to an ODBC driver; however, FileMaker allows non-numeric characters to be stored in this “numeric” field type unless the field is specifically marked as strictly “numeric”. Standard licensing include 2GB of outbound data per user per month. Container data does not count towards this limit, and inbound Data API data transfer is unlimited.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Redirected from Filemaker. Database management system. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.

Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links , and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. February Learn how and when to remove this template message. Pro : macOS This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources.

Retrieved August 7, Retrieved October 10, Retrieved January 18, Low End Mac. November 19, Archived from the original on June 30, FileMaker Pro 8. ISBN Retrieved December 13, Software by Apple Inc. Apple Inc. History Outline Timeline of products.

Classic Mini Nano Shuffle Touch. Mini Air Pro Accessories. Card Pay Wallet. Arthur D. Andrea Jung Ronald D. Sugar Susan L. Woolard Jr. Jerry York.

 
 

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Similarly, the Middle Eastern version has only English and French user interfaces, but with its option to change the text direction to right-to-left , it does support Arabic and Hebrew data entry. FileMaker Pro and FileMaker Pro Advanced include scripting capabilities and a variety of built-in functions for automation of common tasks and complex calculations. Numerous steps are available for navigation, conditional execution of script steps, editing records, and other utilities.

FileMaker Pro Advanced provides a script debugger which allows the developer to set break points, monitor data values and step through script lines. FileMaker 13 introduced a useful script that more deeply queries container field document metadata. It is a cross-platform relational database application. Versions from FileMaker Pro 5. FileMaker 12 introduced a new function, ExecuteSQL, which allows the user to perform an SQL query against the FileMaker database to retrieve data, but does not allow data modification or deletion, or schema changes.

One major flaw with ODBC support is the lack of one-to-one field-type mapping from FileMaker to external industry-standard databases. Further issues are caused by the fact that FileMaker is not “strict” in its data types. A FileMaker field can be marked as “numeric” and will return this mapping to an ODBC driver; however, FileMaker allows non-numeric characters to be stored in this “numeric” field type unless the field is specifically marked as strictly “numeric”.

Standard licensing include 2GB of outbound data per user per month. Container data does not count towards this limit, and inbound Data API data transfer is unlimited. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Redirected from Filemaker. Database management system. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. This article contains content that is written like an advertisement.

Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links , and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. February Learn how and when to remove this template message. Pro : macOS This section does not cite any sources.

Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Retrieved August 7, Retrieved October 10, Retrieved January 18, Low End Mac. November 19, Archived from the original on June 30, FileMaker Pro 8. ISBN Retrieved December 13, Software by Apple Inc. Apple Inc. History Outline Timeline of products. Classic Mini Nano Shuffle Touch. Mini Air Pro Accessories. Card Pay Wallet. Arthur D. Simple Non-inferential Passages Simple non-inferential passages are unproblematic passages that lack a claim that anything is being proved.

Such passages contain statements that could be premises or conclusions or both , but what is missing is a claim that any potential premise supports a conclusion or that any potential conclusion is supported by premises. Passages of this sort include warnings, pieces of advice, statements of belief or opinion, loosely associated statements, and reports.

A warning is a form of expression that is intended to put someone on guard against a dangerous or detrimental situation. Example: Whatever you promise to tell, never confide political secrets to your wife.

In this passage, no evidence is given to prove that the statement is true; and if no evidence is given to prove that the statement is true, then there is no argument. Example: After class hours, I would suggest that you give careful consideration to the subject matter you have discussed.

As with warnings, there is no evidence that is intended to prove anything in piece of advices, and hence there is no argument in the above passage. A statement of belief or opinion is an expression about what someone happens to believe or think about something.

Example: We believe that our university must develop and produce outstanding students who will perform with great skill and fulfill the demands of our nation. This passage does not make any claim that the belief or opinion is supported by evidence, or that it supports some conclusion, and hence does not contain an argument. Loosely associated statements may be about the same general subject, but they lack a claim that one of them is proved by the others.

Example: Not to honor men of worth will keep the people from contention; not to value goods that are hard to come by will keep them from theft; not to display what is desirable will keep them from being unsettled of mind. Lao-Tzu, Thoughts from the Tao Te Ching Because there is no claim that any of these statements provides evidence or reasons for believing another, there is no argument.

Example: The great renaissance dam of Ethiopia has opened an employment opportunity for thousands of Ethiopians. In its completion, thirteen thousand Ethiopians are expected to be hired.

These statements could serve as the premises of an argument, but because the author makes no claim that they support or imply anything, there is no argument. One must be careful, though, with reports about arguments.

Newspaper clipping Properly speaking, this passage is not an argument, because the author of the passage does not claim that anything is supported by evidence. Expository Passages An expository passage is a kind of discourse that begins with a topic sentence followed by one or more sentences that develop the topic sentence. If the objective is not to prove the topic sentence but only to expand it or elaborate it, then there is no argument.

Example: There is a stylized relation of artist to mass audience in the sports, especially in baseball. Each player develops a style of his own-the swagger as he steps to the plate, the unique windup a By: Teklay G. This passage is not argument, because it lacks an inferential claim. Example: Skin and the mucous membrane lining the respiratory and digestive tracts serve as mechanical barriers to entry by microbes.

Oil gland secretions contain chemicals that weaken or kill bacteria on skin. The respiratory tract is lined by cells that sweep mucus and trapped particles up into the throat, where they can be swallowed. The stomach has an acidic pH, which inhibits the growth of many types of bacteria. Sylvia S. Mader, Human Biology, 4th ed. Thus, the passage can be taken as both an expository passage and an argument.

In deciding whether an expository passage should be interpreted as an argument, try to determine whether the purpose of the subsequent sentences in the passage is merely to develop the topic sentence or also to prove that it is true. In borderline cases, ask yourself whether the topic sentence makes a claim that everyone accepts or agrees with. If it does, the passage is probably not an argument. In real-life situations, authors rarely try to prove something is true when everyone already accepts it.

However, if the topic sentence makes a claim that many people do not accept or have never thought about, then the purpose of the remaining sentences may be both By: Teklay G. If this be so, the passage is an argument. Illustrations An illustration is an expression involving one or more examples that is intended to show what something means or how it is done. This passage is not an argument, because it makes no claim that anything is being proved. However, as with expository passages, many illustrations can be taken as arguments.

Such arguments are often called arguments from example. Here is an instance of one: Although most forms of cancer, if untreated, can cause death, not all cancers are life- threatening. For example, basal cell carcinoma, the most common of all skin cancers, can produce disfigurement, but it almost never results in death.

In deciding whether an illustration should be interpreted as an argument, determine whether the passage merely shows how something is done or what something means, or whether it also purports to prove something. In borderline cases, it helps to note whether the claim being illustrated is one that practically everyone accepts or agrees with.

If it is, the passage is probably By: Teklay G. As already noted, in real-life situations, authors rarely attempt to prove what everyone already accepts. But if the claim being illustrated is one that many people do not accept or have never thought about, then the passage may be interpreted as an argument. For example, practically everyone knows that water is H2O. But they may not have ever considered whether some forms of cancer are not life- threatening.

Explanations One of the most important kinds of non-argument is the explanation. An explanation is an expression that purports to shed light on some event or phenomenon, which is usually accepted as a matter of fact. It attempts to clarify, or describe such alike why something is happen that way or why something is what it is. Example: Cows digest grass while humans cannot, because their digestive systems contain enzyme not found in humans.

Every explanation is composed of two distinct components: the explanandum and explanans. The explanandum is the statement that describes the event or phenomenon to be explained, and the explanans is the statement or group of statements that purports to do the explaining. In other words, the purpose of the explanans is to show why something is the case, whereas in an argument, the purpose of the premises is to prove that something is the case.

That is, the premise refer to an accepted fact, and intended to prove that something is the case, while the conclusion is a new assertion followed from the already known fact. Moreover, in explanation, we precede backward from fact to the cause whereas in argument we move from premise to the conclusion. In the above example given, the fact that cows digest grass but humans cannot is readily apparent to everyone. Explanations bear a certain similarities to an argument.

The rational link between the explanandum and explanans may at times resemble the inferential link between the premise and the conclusion of an argument. If this statement describes an accepted matter of fact, and if the remaining statements purport to shed light on this statement, then the passage is an explanation.

This method usually works to distinguish arguments from explanations. However, some passages can be interpreted as both explanations and arguments. Example: Women become intoxicated by drinking a smaller amount of alcohol than men because men metabolize part of the alcohol before it reaches the bloodstream, whereas women do not.

Alternately, the passage could be By: Teklay G. Thus, this passage can be correctly interpreted as both an explanation and an argument. Obviously, what is accepted by one person may not be accepted by another. Sometimes the source of the passage textbook, newspaper, technical journal, etc. But when the passage is taken totally out of context, ascertaining the source may prove impossible. In those circumstances the only possible answer may be to say that if the passage is an argument, then such-and-such is the conclusion and such-and-such are the premises.

Every conditional statement is made up of two component statements. However, there is an occasion that the order of antecedent and consequent is reversed. However, such a relationship need not exist for a statement to count as conditional. Consequent Antecedent if Conditional statements are not arguments, because they fail to meet the criteria given earlier.

In an argument, at least one statement must claim to present evidence, and there must be a claim that this evidence implies something. In a conditional statement, there is no claim that either the antecedent or the consequent presents evidence. In other words, there is no assertion that either the antecedent or the consequent is true.

Rather, there is only the assertion that if the antecedent is true, then so is the consequent. It does not assert that you study hard. Of course, a conditional statement as a whole may present evidence because it asserts a relationship between statements. Yet when conditional statements are taken in this sense, there is still no argument, because there is then no separate claim that this evidence implies anything.

Therefore, a single conditional statement is not an argument. That is why also conditional statements are not evaluated as true or false without separately evaluating the antecedent and the consequent. They only claim that if the antecedent is true then so is the consequent. However, some conditional statements are similar to arguments in that they express the outcome of a reasoning process. As such, they may be said to have a certain inferential content.

Consider the following example: If destroying a political competitor gives you joy, then you have a low sense of morality. Accordingly, conditional statements are not arguments. Yet, although taken by themselves are not arguments, their inferential content, the inferential content between the antecedent and the consequent , may be re-expressed to form arguments. For example, the conditional statement can be re-expressed to form an argument as follows: Destroying a political competitor gives you joy.

Therefore, you have a low sense of morality. Here, we clearly have a premise and conclusion structure, and the conclusion is asserted on the basis of the premise. Therefore, it is argument. Finally, while no single conditional statement is an argument, a conditional statement may serve as either the premise or the conclusion or both of an argument.

Observe the following examples: If he is selling our national secretes to enemies, then he is a traitor. He is selling our national secretes to enemies. Therefore, he is a traitor. If he is selling our national secretes to enemies, then he is a traitor. If he is a traitor, then he must be punished by death.

Therefore, If he is selling our national secretes to enemies, then he must be punished by death. The relation between conditional statements and arguments may now be summarized as follows: 1 A single conditional statement is not an argument. But if it consists of a conditional statement together with some other statement, then, by the second rule, it may be an argument, depending on such factors as the presence of indicator words and an inferential relationship between the statements.

A is said to be a sufficient condition for B whenever the occurrence of A is all that is needed for the occurrence of B. For example, being a dog is a sufficient condition for being an animal. On the other hand, B is said to be a necessary condition for A whenever A cannot occur without the occurrence of B. Thus, being an animal is a necessary condition for being a dog. The difference between sufficient and necessary conditions is a bit tricky.

So, to clarify the idea further, suppose you are given a large, closed cardboard box. Also, suppose you are told that there is a dog in the box. Then you know for sure, there is an animal in the box. No additional information is needed to draw this conclusion. This means that being a dog is sufficient for being an animal.

However, being a dog is not necessary for being an animal, because if you are told that the box contains a cat, you can conclude with equal certainty that it contains an animal. In other words, it is not necessary for the box to contain a dog for it to contain an animal. It might equally well contain a cat, a mouse, a squirrel, or any other animal. On the other hand, suppose you are told that whatever might be in the box, it is not an animal. Then you know for certain there is no dog in the box.

The reason you can draw this conclusion is that being an animal is necessary for being a dog. If there is no animal, there is no dog.

However, being an animal is not sufficient for being a dog, because if you are told that the box contains an animal, you cannot, from this information alone, conclude that it contains a dog. It might contain a cat, a mouse, a squirrel, and so on. These ideas are expressed in the following conditional statements: If X is a dog, then X is an animal. If X is not an animal, then X is not a dog.

Thus, each expresses in one way a necessary condition and in another way a sufficient condition. A is a sufficient condition for B; if A occurs, then B must occur. Note: A is a necessary condition for B; if B occur, then A must occur.

In general, non-argumentative passages may contain components that resemble the premises and conclusions of arguments, but they do not have an inferential claim. However, some passages like expository passages, illustrations, and explanations can be interpreted as arguments; and the inferential contents of conditional statements may be re-expressed to form arguments.

But remember that the mere occurrence of an indicator word does not guarantee the presence of an argument. Lesson 3: Types of Arguments: Deduction and Induction Lesson Overview In our previous lesson, we saw that every argument involves an inferential claim- the claim that the conclusion is supposed to follow from the premises.

Every argument makes a claim that its premises provide grounds for the truth of its conclusion. The question we now address has to do By: Teklay G. Just how strongly is the conclusion claimed to follow from the premises. The reasoning process inference that an argument involves is expressed either with certainty or with probability.

That is what the logician introduced the name deduction and induction for, respectively. If the conclusion is claimed to follow with strict certainty or necessity, the argument is said to be deductive; but if it is claimed to follow only probably, the argument is said to be inductive. Therefore, a conclusion may be supported by its premise in two very different ways.

These two different ways are the two great classes of arguments: Deductive arguments and Inductive arguments. And the distinction between these two classes of arguments, because every argument involves an inferential claim, lies in the strength of their inferential claim. Understanding the distinction of these classes is essential in the study of logic. In this lesson, we will learn the broad groups of arguments, Deductive arguments and Inductive arguments, and the techniques of distinguishing one from the other.

A deductive argument is an argument incorporating the claim that it is impossible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true.

It is an argument in which the premises are claimed to support the conclusion in such a way that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. In such arguments, the conclusion is claimed to follow necessarily conclusively from the premises. Thus, deductive arguments are those that involve necessary reasoning.

All African footballers are blacks. Socrates is a philosopher. Messi is an African footballer. Therefore, Socrates is a critical thinker. It follows that, Messi is black. The above two examples are examples of a deductive argument. In both of them, the conclusion is claimed to follow from the premises with certainty; or the premises are claimed to support their corresponding conclusion with a strict necessity.

If we, for example, assume that all philosophers are critical thinkers and that Socrates is a philosopher, then it is impossible that Socrates not be a critical thinker. Similarly, if we assume that all African footballers are blacks and that Messi is an African footballer, then it is impossible that Messi not be a black.

Thus, we should interpret these arguments as deductive. An inductive argument is an argument incorporating the claim that it is improbable for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true. It is an argument in which the premises are claimed to support the conclusion in such a way that it is improbable for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.

In such arguments, the conclusion is claimed to follow only probably from the premises. The premises may provide some considerable evidence for the conclusion but they do not imply necessarily support the conclusion. In this case, we might have sufficient condition evidence but we cannot be certain about the truth of the conclusion. However, this does not mean that the conclusion is wrong or unacceptable, where as it could be correct or acceptable but only based on probability.

Thus, inductive arguments are those that involve probabilistic reasoning. Almost all women are mammals. Mandela was an African leader. Hanan is a woman. Therefore, probably Mandela was black. Hence, Hanan is a mammal. Both of the above arguments are inductive. In both of them, the conclusion does not follow from the premises with strict necessity, but it does follow with some degree of probability. That is, the conclusion is claimed to follow from the premises only probably; or the premises are claimed to support their corresponding conclusion with a probability.

In other words, if we assume that the premises are true, then based on that assumption it is probable that the conclusion is true. If we, for example, assume that most African leaders were blacks and that Mandela was an African leader, then it is improbable that Mandela not been a black, or it is probable that Mandela was black.

But it is not impossible that Mandela not been a black. Similarly, if we assume that almost all women are mammals and that Hanan is a woman, then it is improbable that Hanan not be a mammal, or it is probable that Hanan is a mammal.

But it is not impossible that Hanan not be a mammal. Thus, the above arguments are best interpreted as inductive. In other words, the distinction lies on how strongly the conclusion is claimed to follow from the premises, or how strongly the premises are claimed to support the conclusion.

However, in most arguments, the strength of this claim is not explicitly stated, so we must use our interpretative abilities to evaluate it. In the deciding whether an argument is deductive or inductive, we must look at certain objective features of the argument. These are: By: Teklay G. However, we must acknowledge at the outset that many arguments in ordinary language are incomplete, and because of this, deciding whether the argument should best be interpreted as deductive or inductive may be impossible.

Let us see the above factors in detail in order to understand and identify the different styles of argumentation. The first factor that influences our decision about a certain inferential claim is the occurrence of special indicator words. There are different sort of indicator words that indicate or mark the type of a certain argument. The point is that if an argument draws its conclusion, using either of the deductive indicator words, it is usually best to interpret it as deductive, but if it draws its conclusion, using either of the inductive indicator words, it is usually best to interpret it as inductive.

Deductive and Inductive indicator words often suggest the correct interpretation. However, one should be cautious about these special indicator words, because if they conflict with one of the other criteria, we should probably ignore them.

If one takes these words at face value, then one might wrongly leads into wrong conclusions. Therefore, the occurrence of an indicator word By: Teklay G. This leads us to consider the second factor. The second factor that bears upon our interpretation of an argument as inductive or deductive is the actual strength of the inferential link between premises and conclusion.

If the conclusion actually does follow with strict necessity from the premises, the argument is clearly deductive. In such an argument, it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. If, on the other hand, the conclusion of an argument does not follow with strict necessity but does follow probably, it is usually best to interpret it as inductive argument.

Consider the following examples. Example Example All Ethiopian people love their country. The majority of Ethiopian people are poor. Debebe is an Ethiopian. Alamudin is an Ethiopian. Therefore, Debebe loves his country. Therefore, Alamudin is poor. If we assume that all Ethiopian people love their country and that Debebe is an Ethiopian, then it is impossible that Debebe not love his country.

Thus, we should interpret this argument as deductive. In the second example, the conclusion does not follow from the premises with strict necessity, but it does follow with some degree of probability. If we assume that the premises are true, then based on that assumption it is probable that the conclusion is true. Thus, it is best to interpret the second argument as inductive. Occasionally, an argument contains no special indicator words, and the conclusion does not follow either necessarily or probably from the premises; in other words, it does not follow at all.

This situation points up the need for the third factor to be taken into account, which is the character or form of argumentation the arguer uses. Let us see some examples of deductive argumentative forms and inductive argumentative forms. Argument based on mathematics: it is an argument in which the conclusions depend on some purely arithmetic or geometric computation or measurement.

For example, you can put two orange and three bananas in a bag and conclude that the bag contains five fruits. Or again you can measure a square pieces of land and after determining it is ten meter on each side conclude that its area is a hundred square meter. Since all arguments in pure mathematics are deductive, we can usually consider arguments that depend on mathematics to be deductive as well.

A noteworthy exception, however, is arguments that depend on statistics are usually best interpreted as inductive. Arguments based on definition: it is an argument in which the conclusion is claimed to depend merely up on the definition of some words or phrase used in the premise or conclusion.

For example, one may argue that Angel is honest; it is follows that Angel tells the truth. Or again, Kebede is a physician; therefore, he is a doctor. Syllogisms are arguments consisting of exactly two premises and one conclusion. Syllogisms can be categorized into three groups; categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive syllogism. Categorical syllogism: a syllogism is an argument consisting of exactly two premises and one conclusion.

Example: All Egyptians are Muslims. No Muslim is a Christian. Arguments such as these are nearly interpreted as deductive. Hypothetical syllogism: It is a syllogism having a conditional statement for one or both of its premises. Example: If you study hard, then you will graduate with Distinction. If you graduate with Distinction, then you will get a rewarding job. Therefore, if you study hard, then you will get a rewarding job. Such arguments are best interpreted as deductive.

Disjunctive syllogism: it is a syllogism having a disjunctive statement. Example: Rewina is either Ethiopian or Eritrean. Rewina is not Eritrean. Therefore, Rewina is Ethiopian. As with hypothetical syllogism, such arguments are usually best taken as deductive. The premises of such an argument typically deal with some subject that is relatively familiar, and the conclusion then moves beyond this to a subject that is less familiar or that little is known about.

Such an argument may take any of several forms: predictions about the future, arguments from analogy, inductive generalizations, arguments from authority, arguments based on signs, and causal inferences, to name just a few. For example, one may argue that because certain clouds develop in the center of the highland, a rain will fall within twenty-four hours. Nearly everyone realizes that the future cannot be known with certainty.

Thus, whenever an argument makes a prediction about the future one is usually justified considering the argument inductive. An argument from analogy: It is an argument that depends on the existence of an analogy or similarity between two things or state of affairs.

Because of the existence of this analogy a certain conditions that affects the better- known thing or situations is concluded to affect the less familiar , lesser known-thing or situation. For instance, one may conclude, after observing the similarity of some features of Computer A and car B: that both are manufactured in ; that both are easy to access; that Computer A is fast in processing; it follows that Computer B is also fast in processing. This argument depends on the existence of a similarity or analogy between the two cars.

The certitude attending such an inference is obviously probabilistic at best. An inductive generalization: it is an argument that proceeds from the knowledge of a selected sample to some claim about the whole group. Because the members of the sample have a certain characteristics, it is argued that all members of the group have the same characteristics. For example, one may argue that because three out of four people in a single prison are black, one may conclude that three-fourth of prison populations are blacks.

This example illustrate the use of statistics in inductive argumentation. An argument from authority: it is an argument in which the conclusions rest upon a statement made by some presumed authority or witness. A lawyer, for instance, may argue that the person is guilty because an eyewitness testifies to that effect under oath. Because the professor and the eyewitness could be either mistaken or lying, such arguments are essentially probabilistic.

Arguments based on sign: it is an argument that proceeds from the knowledge of a certain sign to the knowledge of a thing or situation that the sign symbolizes. For instance, one may infer that By: Teklay G.

But because the sign might be displaced or in error about the area or forgotten, conclusion follows only probably. A causal inference: it is an argument which proceed from the knowledge of a cause to the knowledge of an effect, or conversely, from the knowledge of an effect to knowledge of a cause.

Because specific instances of cause and effect can never be known with absolute certainty, one may usually interpret such an argument as inductive. Furthermore Considerations It should be noted that the various subspecies of inductive arguments listed here are not intended to be mutually exclusive.

Overlaps can and do occur. For example, many causal inferences that proceed from cause to effect also qualify as predictions. We should take care not to confuse arguments in geometry, which are always deductive, with arguments from analogy or inductive generalizations.

For example, an argument concluding that a triangle has a certain attribute such as a right angle because another triangle, with which it is congruent, also has that attribute might be mistaken for an argument from analogy.

One broad classification of arguments not listed in this survey is scientific arguments. Arguments that occur in science can be either inductive or deductive, depending on the circumstances. In general, arguments aimed at the discovery of a law of nature are usually considered inductive.

Another type of argument that occurs in science has to do with the application of known laws to specific circumstances. Arguments of this sort are often considered to be deductive, but only with certain reservations. A final point needs to be made about the distinction between inductive and deductive arguments.

There is a tradition extending back to the time of Aristotle that holds that inductive arguments are those that proceed from the particular to the general, while deductive arguments are those By: Teklay G. A particular statement is one that makes a claim about one or more particular members of a class, while a general statement makes a claim about all the members of a class.

In fact, there are deductive arguments that proceed from the general to the general, from the particular to the particular, and from the particular to the general, as well as from the general to the particular; and there are inductive arguments that do the same. For example, here is a deductive argument that proceeds from the particular to the general: Three is a prime number. Five is a prime number. Seven is a prime number. Therefore, all odd numbers between two and eight are prime numbers.

Here is an inductive argument that proceeds from the general to the particular: All emeralds previously found have been green. Therefore, the next emerald to be found will be green. In sum up, to distinguish deductive arguments from inductive, we look for special indicator words, the actual strength of the inferential link between premises and conclusion, and the character or form of argumentation.

Lesson 4: Evaluating Arguments Lesson Overview In our previous lesson, we have seen that every argument makes two basic claims: a claim that evidence or reasons exist and a claim that the alleged evidence or reasons support something or that something follows from the alleged evidence or reasons.

The first is a factual claim, and the second is an inferential claim. The evaluation of every argument centers on the evaluation of these two claims.

The most important of the two is the inferential claim, because if the premises fail to support the conclusion that is, if the reasoning is bad , an argument is worthless.

Thus, we will always test the inferential claim first, and only if the premises do support the conclusion will we test the factual claim that is, the claim that the premises present genuine evidence, or are true.

In this By: Teklay G. And the primary purpose of this lesson is to introduce you with the natures of good arguments both in deductive and inductive arguments. Hence, you will learn effective techniques and strategies for evaluating arguments.

How do you think are the validity and soundness of a deductive argument evaluated? Deduction and Validity The previous section defined a deductive argument as one in which the premises are claimed to support the conclusion in such a way that if they are assumed true, it is impossible for the conclusions to be false. If the premises do in fact support the conclusions in this way the arguments is said to be valid; if not, it is invalid.

Thus, a valid deductive argument is an argument such that if the premises are assumed true, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false. In such arguments, the conclusion follows with strict necessity from the premises. Conversely, an invalid deductive argument is an argument such that if the premises are assumed true, it is possible for the conclusion to be false. In these arguments, the conclusion does not follow with strict necessity from the premises, even though it is claimed to. Consider the following examples: Example All men are mammals.

All philosophers are rational. Therefore, all bulls are mammals. Socrates was rational. Therefore, Socrates was a philosopher. Example The first example is valid argument, because the conclusion actually followed from the premises with a strict necessity. If all men are assumed as mammals and bulls as men, then it is impossible for bulls not be mammals.

Hence, the argument is valid. The second example is invalid argument, because the conclusion did not actually follow from the premises with a strict necessity, even though it is claimed to. That is, even if we assume that all philosophers rational and Socrates is rational, it is not actually impossible for Socrates not be a philosopher. The above definitions of valid and invalid arguments, along with their corresponding examples, lead us into two immediate conclusions.

The first is that there is no middle ground between valid and invalid. An argument is either valid or invalid. The second consequence is that there is only an indirect relation between validity and truth. For an argument to be valid it is not necessary that either the premises or the conclusions be true, but merely that if the premises assumed true, it is impossible for the conclusion be false.

That is, we do not have to know whether the premise of an argument is actually true in order to determine its validity valid or invalid.

To test an argument for validity, we begin by assuming that all premises are true, and then we determine if it is possible, in light of that assumption, for the conclusion to be false. Thus, the validity of argument is the connection between premise and conclusion rather than on the actual truth or falsity of the statement formed the argument.

There are four possibilities with respect to the truth or falsity of the premises and conclusion of a given argument: 1 True premises and True conclusion, 2 True premises and False conclusion, 3 False premises and True conclusion, and 4 False premises and False conclusion. Note that all of the above possibilities, except the second case true premises and false conclusion , allow for both valid and invalid arguments.

That is, the second case does not allow By: Teklay G. As we have just seen, any argument having this combination is necessarily invalid. Let us discuss these possibilities in detail with examples. View High Dynamic Range video the way it was meant to be seen. The amazing MacBook Pro display delivers up to 7. Import, edit, and grade original, untouched footage with RAW data straight from your camera sensor — without sacrificing any speed or smoothness.

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The Logic Pros: Making MIDI FX in Logic’s complex Environment simple – 9to5Mac – Description

 
You can configure the Environment as a floating window by control-clicking anywhere on an empty space and selecting ‘Frameless Floating Window’. The Mixer Window, showing drum and percussion channels separated by some synth tracks. Percussion tracks are highlighted. But in the environment.

 
 

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